UNDURRAGA SCHULER, Verônica. Affronts washed with blood: honor, masculinity and sword duels in 18th century Chile.Translated byCristina Labarca Cortés. Historia (Santiago) [online]. 2008, vol.4Selected edition, pp. 0-0. ISSN 0717-7194.
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2 About this, the anthropologist Peristiany, one of the referents in the study of honor in Mediterranean societies, has pointed out that honor and dishonor "are the reflection of the personality of society and the mirror of social ideals". J. G. Peristiany (ed.), El concepto de honor en la sociedad mediterránea, Barcelona, Labor, 1968, 12. [ Links ] By representation we understand the systems of perceptions and judgment than individuals or the communities of interpretation understand and construct of the social world. Under the concept of practices we will be referring to the experiences and ways how people materialize what honor meant for them. Roger Chartier, El mundo como representación. Estudios sobre historia cultural, Barcelona, Gedisa, 1992. [ Links ] For some critical reflections about the notion of representation, see Carlo Ginzburg, Ojazos de madera. Nueve reflexiones sobre la distancia, Barcelona, Península, 2000, 85-88. [ Links ] 3 About the transversal and polysemous character of collonial chilean honor see Verónica Undurraga, "Honores transversales, honores polisémicos en la sociedad chilena del siglo XVIII", in A. Araya, A. Candina and C. Cussen (eds.), Del nuevo al viejo mundo: mentalidades y representaciones desde América, Santiago, Fondo de Publicaciones Americanistas y Facultad de Humanidades de la Universidad de Chile, 2008, 53-65. [ Links ] 4 By "symbolic struggles" we understand, following Pierre Bourdieu, the disputes for the appropriation of the distinctive signs that are the basis of the cultural capital of a society. These are "struggles in which what is at stake is everything that, in the social world, is about beliefs, credibility or incredibility, perception and appreciation, knowledge and recognition, name, renown, prestige, honor, glory, authority, everything that constitutes the symbolic power as a recognized power". Pierre Bourdieu, La distinción. Criterio y bases sociales del gusto, Madrid, Taurus, 2000, 248. [ Links ] 5 By elite we refer to a select and reduced group of people that had social, economic and political prerogatives in a certain social, economic and political context. See Jacques A. Barbier, "Elite and Cadres in Bourbon Chile", Hispanic American Historical Review (from now on HAHR), 52 (3), 1972, 416-435. [ Links ] We take the notion of discourse proposed by Foucault, as a system of possibility of knowledge. As such, it is not only a way of expression, but a disposition of experiences and knowledge. Michel Foucault, El orden del discurso, Barcelona, Tusquets, 2002; [ Links ] Michel Foucault, Arqueología del saber, Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI, 2003. [ Links ] 7 Frédérique Langue, "Les identités fractales: honneur et couleur dans la société vénézuélienne du XVIIIe siècle", Caravelle, Nº 65, 1995, 25 (translation is ours). [ Links ] 8 The social use of identities is referred especially to those derived of origin and color of the colonial actors. Berta Ares Queija, "Mestizos en hábito de indios: ¿estrategias transgresoras o identidades difusas?", in R. M. Loureiro y Serge Gruzinski (eds.), Passar as fronteiras. Il coloquio internacional sobre mediadores culturais, séculos XV a XVIII, Lagos, Centro de Estudios Gil Eanes, 1999, 133-146; [ Links ] Bernard Lavallé, Amor y opresión en los Andes centrales, Lima, IEP / IFEA / URP, 85-136. [ Links ] When we state the existence of a social use of honor in 18th century Chile, we not only postulate the possibility of negotiation of native identities but of all those linked to the faces of honor, especially in middle and lower groups. The synonymy between honor and good conduct, or between honor and virility, were some of the mechanisms used by poor Spaniards, Indians and castes to construct alternative representations of honor. With this, the importance of traditional criteria, like lineage, was eluded or at least minimized. See Verónica Undurraga, "El honor no es más que la buena opinión: aproximación al honor a partir de la categoría de lo público en el Chile de 1792 a 1822", Bicentenario. Revista de Historia de Chile y América, Vol. 4, Nº 2, 2005, Santiago, 17-35. [ Links ] 10 The notion of American colonial society as a society of domination, with all the range of nuances that this notion can have, has been studied by several authors. For Chile we can mention, among others, the works of Sergio Villalobos, Historia del pueblo chile-no, Tomo IV, Santiago, Editorial Universitaria, 1999, 211-294. From the point of view of social disciplining, Leonardo León has shown the mechanisms of control of the population by the elite of the illustration. See his works, "Elite y bajo pueblo durante el período colonial. La guerra contra las pulperas en Santiago de Chile", Monografías de Cuadernos de Historia Nº 1, Historia de las mentalidades. Homenaje a Georges Duby, Santiago, Departamento de Ciencias Históricas, Universidad de Chile, 2000, 93-114; [ Links ] "La construcción del orden social oligárquico en Chile colonial: la creación del Cuerpo de Dragones, 1758", Estudios Coloniales I, Santiago, Universidad Andrés Bello, 2000, 183-195; [ Links ] "Reglamentando la vida cotidiana en Chile colonial, 1760-1768", Valles. Revista de estudios regionales, La Ligua, Año 4, Nº 4, 1998, 47-75. [ Links ] 11 The strategies of adaptation and manipulation in the social world show the operability of a "specific rationality" in the actions of colonial actors. The term "specific rationality" comes from Giovanni Levi who applies it to the European peasant world of the Old Regime. Giovanni Levi, La herencia inmaterial. La historia de un exorcista piamontés del siglo XVII, Madrid, Nerea, 1990, 11 y 12. [ Links ] 12 Lyman L. Johnson and Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, The faces of honor in Colonial Latin America. Sex, shame and violence, Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1998; [ Links ] María Eugenia Chaves, Honor y libertad. Discursos y recursos en la estrategia de libertad de una mujer esclava (Guayaquil a fines del período colonial), Goteborg, Departamento de Historia/Instituto Iberoamericano de la Universidad de Goteborg, 2001; [ Links ] Sarah Chambers, From Subjects to Citizens. Honor, Gender and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780-1854, University Park PA, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999; [ Links ] Frédérique Langue, "Les identités fractales", op. cit., 23-37; Frédérique Langue, Aristócratas, honor y subversión en la Venezuela del siglo XVIII, Caracas, Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia, Serie Fuentes para la Historia de Venezuela, Vol. 252, 2000 [ Links ] 13 Diego Barros Arana, Historia general de Chile, tomo VII, Santiago, Universitaria-DIBAM, 2000, 308. [ Links ] The description of individuals of mixed race as vicious, with propensity to drinking and gambling, certainly did not contribute to search for fundaments of honor in the middle or lower groups. Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna, Historia crítica y social de Santiago. 1541-1868, Santiago, Nascimento, 1924, Tomo II, 144 y 532. [ Links ] 14 Domingo Amunátegui Solar, Mayorazgos y títulos de Castilla, 3 vols., Santiago, Imprenta, Litografía I Encuadernación Barcelona, 1901; [ Links ] Juan Mujica, Linajes españoles. Nobleza colonial de Chile, 2 vols., Santiago, Zamorano y Caperán, 1927; [ Links ] Luis Thayer Ojeda, Familias chilenas, Santiago, Guillermo Miranda Editor, 1905; [ Links ] Juan Luis Espejo, Nobiliario de la Capitanía General de Chile, Santiago, Andrés Bello, 1967; [ Links ] Julio Retamal Favereau y otros, Familias fundadoras de Chile, 3 vols., Santiago, Universidad Católica de Chile, 1992, 2000, 2003. [ Links ] Also, the several articles by Luis Lira Montt endorse the conception of honor as a principle associated to the elite. His interest for the study of nobility in Indias, as a social institution regulated by the Spanish crown, stems from a historical-legal and institutional point of view. Some of his works are: "Beneméritos del Reino de Chile repertorio del siglo XVII", Boletín de la Academia Chilena de la Historia (en adelante BAChH), N° 105, 1995, 51-74; [ Links ] "El fuero nobiliario en Indias", BAChH, N° 89, 19751976, 45-78; [ Links ] "La fundación de mayorazgos en Indias", BAChH, N° 102, 1991-1992, 349-386. [ Links ] 15 Jaime Eyzaguirre, Fisonomía histórica de Chile, Santiago, Ed. del Pacífico, 1958, 15-17, 21-23. [ Links ] 16 About the preoccupations of enriched merchants with social prestige see Mario Góngora, Encomenderos y estancieros. Estudios acerca de la constitución social aristocrática de Chile después de la Conquista 1580-1660, Santiago, Universitaria, 1970, 80-87. In his analysis of social urban stratification in colonial Chile, the same author refers to the expectative of honor the mixed race had and their efforts to obtain it through the military ranks in the 18th century. Though these ideas were not systematically developed in his writings, they constituted refreshing pints of view that obligated to center the attention of facets that gave color and mobility to the apparently quiet and grey colonial siesta. Mario Góngora, "Urban social stratification in colonial Chile", HAHR, 55 (3), august 1975, 440. [ Links ] About the prestige that the promotion ladders of urban militias gave to castes in the 18th century in Chile, see Hugo Contreras, "Las milicias de pardos y morenos libres de Santiago de Chile en el siglo XVIII, 1760-1800", Cuadernos de Historia, Nº 25, Santiago, 2006, 93-117. [ Links ] 20 In the reality of colonial Chile, the existence of codes of honor different from those of the elite has remained unnoticed for historiography up until a few years ago, and there is still no systematic study that – dialoguing with documentary registers – shows the diversity of its representations and practices, an issue we are currently working on for our doctoral thesis. Up to the moment, the only works exclusively destined to analyze honor in Chilean colonial society, besides those previously mentioned of our own authorship, have been "El concepto de honor en Chile colonial" and "Mujeres de Chillán luchan por su honra", by Retamal Ávila. In the first, the analysis is centered on the fundaments of power and social prestige of the aristocrats of the 16th and 17th centuries, recording a change in the "concept of honor" for the 18th century derived from the penetration of "new people" in the nucleus of the elite. Likewise, the author accepts the possibility that this notion "went through" the integrants of the "emerging middle group" and even some Indians, especially caciques. In the second article, the importance of female sexual purity is addressed in the conformation of the Hispanic Creole honor. See Julio Retamal Ávila, "El concepto de honor en Chile colonial", Estudios Coloniales II, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, 2002, 41-56; [ Links ] "Mujeres de Chillán luchan por su honra", Estudios Coloniales III, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, 2004, 113-127. [ Links ] 21 Frédérique Langue has proponed this way of access to the American colonial past, based on the parameters of the 1990s European "new social history". See her work "Les identités fractales", op. cit., 24. For a critical analysis of the contributions and weaknesses of the work directed by Bernard Lepetit, that crystallizes the preoccupations of this "new social history", see the review by Abel Ignacio López, "La historiografía francesa de los años noventa. Bernard Lepetit (director). Les formes de l'experience. Une autre histoire sociale. Paris, Albin Michel, 1995", [ Links ] in Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura, Vol. 26, 1999, 373-386. [ Links ] The interest for the study of the social practices in the American colonial world has intended to reconsider, for example, the history of institutions, with the accent on the social actors and the adjustment of general norms to local peculiarities. For the legal sphere, see Juan Carlos Garavaglia and Jean-Frédéric Schaub, Lois, Justice, Coutume. Amérique et Europe latines (16e-19e siècle), Paris, Éditions de L'Ècole del Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2005. 23 See note 13. [ Links ] 22 The lines of analysis of Mediterranean honor impelled by the anthropological interpretation have included topics like social position, spiritual kinship or relationships with godfathers, family, hospitality and sexuality. Some of these works are: J. G. Peristiany (ed.), El concepto de honor, op.cit.; Julian Pitt-Rivers, Antropología del honor o política de los sexos. Ensayos de antropología mediterránea, Barcelona, Crítica,1979; [ Links ] Julian Pitt-Rivers and J. G. Peristiany (eds.), Honor y gracia, Alianza, Madrid, 1993; [ Links ] J. K. Campbell, Honnour, Family and Patronage: A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1964; [ Links ] J. Davis, People of the Mediterranean. An essay in comparative social anthropology, Londres, Routhledge and Kegan Paul, 1977. [ Links ] 25 For this perspective see José Antonio Maravall, Poder, honor y élites en el siglo XVII, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1984. [ Links ] In turn, Weber's sociology endorses the connection between honor and "class situation". Max Weber, Economía y sociedad. Esbozo de sociología comprensiva, Santafé de Bogotá, F.C.E., 1997, 687-691. [ Links ] 27 Already thirty years ago Carlo Ginzburg pointed out the need to reconsider the relationship between popular culture and culture of the elite, avoiding a paternalism that makes the former be a sole reproducer of the ideas of the latter. Though this prejudice has been avoided, replacing the study of the culture produced by the popular groups to the problem of the culture imposed to them, the most attractive solution has been to show circularity between the levels of culture. Next to this, the notion of "popular culture" has been amply problematic, as it gives a false impression of homogeneity and expresses a reductionism cultural division in two levels, thus forgetting plurality of thought, behavior and the specific modalities of appropriation of cultural meanings. Carlo Ginzburg, El queso y los gusanos. El cosmos según un molinero del siglo XVI, Barcelona, Península, 2001 (1ª ed. 1976). [ Links ] About the role of cultural mediators, see Berta Ares Queija y Serge Gruzinski (coord.), Entre dos mundos. Fronteras culturales y agentes mediadores, Sevilla, Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 1997. [ Links ] 28 Frédérique Langue, "Les identités fractales", op.cit.; Serge Gruzinski, El pensamiento mestizo, Barcelona, Paidós, 2000. [ Links ] 29 To analyse the influence of Santiago inside the colonial economic system see the studies of Marcello Carmagnani, Los mecanimos de la vida económica en una sociedad colonial. Chile, 1680-1830, Santiago, DIBAM, 2001 and Romano Ruggiero, [ Links ] Una economía colonial: Chile siglo XVIII, Buenos Aires, Eudeba, 1965. [ Links ] From the point of view of the mobility of men in search of work and social opportunities see the interesting article, revolutionary for the time, of Mario Góngora, "Vagabundaje y sociedad fronteriza en Chile siglos XVII-XIX)", en Estudios de historia de la ideas y de historia social, Valparaíso, Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso, 1980. [ Links ] 30 McCaa, Robert, "Calidad, Class, and Marriage in Colonial Mexico: The Case of Parral, 1788-1790", HAHR, 64 (3), 1984, 477-501; [ Links ] Roland Anrup and María Eugenia Chaves, "La «plebe» en una sociedad de «todos los colores». La construcción e un imaginario social y político en la colonia tardía en Cartagena y Guayaquil", Caravelle. Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-bresilien, Nº 84, 2005, 93-126. [ Links ] 31 Just like historiography, our sources show the networks the Basques established from the peninsula with their friends and relatives in Chile, an essential step for their quick social insertion and promising economic bonanza. See, for example, Archivo Nacional Fondo Real Audiencia (from now on A.N.R.A.) Vol. 3205, Pieza 1, 35 Fjs., Santiago, 1794. Don Benito Aspeitía Yañez asks for permission to marry doña Constanza Ferrer. In this file one can see the friendship between the parents of Aspeitía and don Manuel de Salas, who felt the moral obligation to act as the father of the newly arrived Basque, advising him on his marriage plans. See also Trinidad Zaldívar, María José Vial and Francisca Rengifo, Los vascos en Chile. 1680-1820, Santiago, Los Andes, 1998, 36-40. [ Links ] 32 About the spatial mobility of the laborers, see the works of Gabriel Salazar, Labradores, peones y proletarios. Formación y crisis de la sociedad popular chilena del siglo XIX, Santiago, Lom Ediciones, 2000; [ Links ] "Ser niño huacho en la Historia de Chile (Siglo XIX)", Proposiciones. Chile, Historia y Bajo Pueblo, Nº 19, Santiago, 1990, 55-83. [ Links ] The link between loitering and the laborers-farmboys has been studied by Alejandra Araya in Ociosos, vagabundos y malentretenidos en Chile colonial, Santiago, Dibam-Lom Ediciones, 1999, 67-80. [ Links ] 33 Armando de Ramón, Santiago de Chile (1541-1990). Historia de una sociedad urbana, Santiago, Editorial Sudamericana, 2000; [ Links ] "Santiago de Chile: 1650-1700", en Historia, Nº 12, Instituto de Historia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 1974-1975, 93-104. [ Links ] 35 The Diccionario de Autoridades, derives "paisanaje", of "paisano". The latter refers to "someone who is from a same country, province or place as another or others. It is formed from the name País". Real Academia, Diccionario de la lengua castellana, en que se explica el verdadero sentido de las voces, su naturaleza y calidad, con las phrases o modos de hablar, los proverbios o refranes, y otras cosas convenientes al uso de la lengua, Imprenta de la Real Academia Española por los herederos de Francisco del Hierro, Madrid, tomo V, 1737, 80. [ Links ] 36 Historiography has amply referred to the problem of ethnic identities, particularly the relationship between the categories derived from mixed races and the "society of castes" and the social structure of the colonial American world. In general terms, we can point out that the initial impact of the statements of Magnus Mörner that established equivalence between "race" and social hierarchies have been questioned from different angles. The criticisms on the nomenclature used, like "race" or "ethnia", do not only express semantic problems, but they pretend to show the ambiguity of cultural identities and the inconveniences of circumventing the tight links between those categories and the mechanisms of domination used by Hispanics. Some examples: Magnus Mörner, La mezcla de razas en la historia de América latina, Buenos Aires, Paidós, 1969; [ Links ] Berta Ares Queija, "Mestizos en hábito de indios", op. cit.; Roland Anrup and María Eugenia Chaves, "La «plebe»", op. cit.; Robert H. Jackson, "Race/Caste and the Creation and Meaning of Identity in Colonial Spanish America", Revista de Indias, Vol. LV, Nº 203, 1995, 149-173; [ Links ] John K. Chance and William B. Taylor, "Estate and Class in a Colonial City: Oaxaca in 1792", Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 19, Nº 4, 1977, 454-487; [ Links ] Carmen Bernand, "De lo étnico a lo popular: circulaciones, mezclas, rupturas", en Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos, Nº 6, 2006, http://nuevomundo.revues.org/document1318.html [ Links ] 38 Jean-Pierre Blancpain, Francia y los franceses en Chile (1700-1980), Santiago, Hachette, 1987; [ Links ] Aníbal Escobar V., Francia y la colonia francesa en Chile, Santiago, Imprenta y Litografía La Ilustración, 1920; [ Links ] Fernando Campos Harriet, Veleros franceses en el Mar del Sur (1700-1800), Santiago, Zig-Zag, 1964. [ Links ] 39 However there are several studies that refute the vision that the coming of the bourgeoisie diminished the preoccupation with honor, especially during the 19th century. See Sandra Gayol, "Honor Moderno: The significance of honor in fin-de-siécle Argentina", HAHR, 84 (3), 2004, 475-498; [ Links ] Sandra Gayol, Sociabilidad en Buenos Aires. Hombres, Honor y Cafés 1862-1910, Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Signo, 2000; [ Links ] Sarah Chambers, From Subjects to Citizens, op. cit.; Verena Martínez-Alier, Marriage, class and colour, op. cit.; Peter M. Beattie, "The House, the Street, and the Barracks: Reform and Honorable Masculine Social Space in Brazil, 1864-1945, HAHR, 76 (3), 1996, 439-473; [ Links ] Thomas W. Gallant, "Honor, Masculinity, and Ritual Knife Fighting in Nineteenth-Century Greece", HAHR, 105, (2), 2000, 359-382; [ Links ] Kenneth S. Greenberg, "The Nose, the Lie, and the Duel in the Antebellum South", The American Historical Review, Vol. 95, Nº 1, 1990, 57-74 [ Links ] 40 About social contempt for the practice of doctors in colonial Chile, see Vicuña Mackenna, Médicos de antaño, Buenos Aires, Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1974, 106-117. [ Links ] About this subject, we have an interesting legal process for slander filed by a doctor after a man insulted him degrading his profession. Just as he said, the other individual "with violent contempt and despise of my honor and profession he insulted me notoriously accusing me of being only a bleeder and not a physician". Consequently, he requests the aggressor to publicly deny his words for the "restoration of my honor and profession". Archivo Nacional, Fondo Criminal, Legajo 1, expediente 2, Foja 1, Dn Agustin Gastaldes contra Dn Francisco Pérez por injurias, 1802, Sta Rosa del Huasco. We thank Emma de Ramón for the chance to review this documentation when it was in process of cataloguing. Gonzalo Vial has studied some of the prejudices about trades at the end of the colonial period. Gonzalo Vial, "Los prejuicios sociales en Chile, al terminar el siglo XVIII. (Notas para su estudio)", BAChH, 73, 1965, 14-29. [ Links ] "Cátedras y Tertulias": "En busca de honor en Chile colonial: re-significación, categorías raciales y masculinidad", Archivo Nacional Histórico, 29 de agosto de 2006. [ Links ] 41 About the ways of "private vengeance" in Spain and its domains from the 16th to the 18th century and the difficulties of the crown to eliminate this practice, see Francisco Tomás y Valiente, El Derecho Penal de la Monarquía absoluta (Siglos XVI - XVII - XVIII), Madrid, Tecnos, 1969, 46-80. [ Links ] The policies of social control displayed under the aegis of illustrated despotism amply exceed the parameters of this investigation. For a general analysis of the Chilean case, see Jacques A. Barbier, Reform and Politics in Bourbon Chile, 1755-1796, Ottawa, University of Ottawa, 1980. [ Links ] An interesting line of analysis refers to the efforts of the illustrated elite to "order" public fun under the parameters of civilization/barbarism. Juan Pedro Viqueira Albán, ¿Relajados o reprimidos? Diversiones públicas y vida social en la ciudad de México durante el Siglo de las Luces, México, F.C.E., 2005. [ Links ] 42 The concept of honor as a means of social disciplining has been one of the most studied aspects of the subject in historiography, especially in the perspectives of the history of gender. However, these interpretations evade the existence of a social use of honor, capable of turning this notion in a legitimizing element of transgressions of order and official moral. For a summary and discussion of this perspective. see Steve Stern, The secret history of gender. Women, men, and power in late Colonial Mexico, Chapel Hill & London, The University of North Carolina Press, 1995, 14-19. [ Links ] 44 About the game of boules and other games of the time see the works of Eugenio Pereira Salas, Juegos y alegrías coloniales en Chile, Santiago, Editorial Zig-Zag, 1947 and Oreste Plath, [ Links ] Origen y folclor de los juegos en Chile: ritos, mitos, tradiciones, Santiago, Grijalbo, 1998. [ Links ] 46 Irene Meler, "La masculinidad. Diversidad y similitudes entre los grupos humanos", in Mabel Burin and Irene Meler, Varones. Género y subjetividad masculina, Buenos Aires, Paidós, 2000, 76. [ Links ] 47 For an analysis of masculinity in the popular sectors of the 19th century in Chile, see the works of Marcos Fernández L., Prisión común, imaginario social e identidad. Chile, 1870-1920, Santiago, Andrés Bello, DIBAM, 2003; [ Links ] "Perfiles masculinos al interior de la cárcel rural: historias de reos y soldados en el penal de Rancagua durante el siglo XIX", Revista de Historia Social y de las Mentalidades, Santiago, Nº 3, 1999, 137-168; [ Links ] "Pobres, borrachos, violentos y libres: notas para la reconstrucción de identidades masculinas populares en el siglo XIX", in José Olavarría y Rodrigo Parrini (eds.), Masculinidad/es. Identidad, sexualidad y familia, Santiago, FLACSO-UAHC, 2000, 4758. [ Links ] The case of Argentina has been studied by Sandra Gayol, who connects masculinity to a popular honor linked to sexuality, physical force and reputation. See her book Sociabilidad en Buenos Aires, op. cit. It is worth noting the similarity of that construction of masculinity in the traditional world, independently of the geographical place. To observe these similarities in 17th century England, for example, see Elizabeth A. Foyster, Manhood in Early Modern England. Honour, Sex, and Marriage, London and New York, Longman, 1999. [ Links ] 50 María Teresa Rojas, "Agresión de hombre, defensa de mujer: una aproximación a la violencia conyugal y la justicia en el mundo popular. Zona central de Chile 1760-1830", Revista de Historia Social y de las Mentalidades, Nº 3, 1999, 89-116. [ Links ] 56 About the persistente of the term "drunk", an insult in colonial times, see María Eugenia Albornoz, Violencias, género y representaciones: La injuria de palabra en Santiago de Chile (1672-1822), tesis inédita de Magíster en Género y Cultura, Santiago, Universidad de Chile, 2003, 43 y 45. [ Links ] William B. Taylor proposed to call insults "fight words", given their role prior to physical confrontation. He makes a distinction of types of insults according to the ethnic identities of those who pronounce them. See his work Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1979, 73-83. [ Links ] For an analysis of insults – amply understood as words and gestures – and social colonial order, see Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, "Los insultos en la Nueva España en el siglo XVIII", in Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru (dir.), Historia de la vida cotidiana en México, Tomo III El Siglo XVIII: entre tradición y cambio, México, El Colegio de México, F. C. E., 2005, 473-500. [ Links ] A historiography balance of the topic in the American colonial world, with new proposals, can be found in Cheryl English Martin, "Popular Speech and Social Order in Northern Mexico, 1650-1830", Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 32, Nº 2, 1990, 305-324. [ Links ] 58 About the tight relationships in traditional Chile, see René Salinas, "Espacio doméstico, solidaridades y redes de sociabilidad aldeana en Chile tradicional, 1750-1880", Contribuciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Santiago, N° 118, 1998, 1-19. [ Links ] 60 Marta Madero, Manos violentas, palabras vedadas: la injuria en Castilla y León, siglos XIII XV, Madrid, Taurus, 1992, 13 (notions of the prologue by Jacques Le Goff). [ Links ] About the uses of corporal metaphors as expressions of the social order in the colonial American world, see the works by Alejandra Araya, "Aproximación hacia una historia del cuerpo. Los vínculos de dependencia personal en la sociedad colonial: gestos, actitudes y símbolos entre elites y subordinados", in Monografías de Cuadernos de Historia Nº 1, op. cit., 81-91; "La pedagogía del cuerpo en la educación Novo-Hispánica", Estudios Coloniales II, op. cit., 115-157; "Sirvientes contra amos: Las heridas en lo íntimo propio", in Rafael Sagredo and Cristián Gazmuri (directors), Historia de la vida privada en Chile, Tomo I: El Chile tradicional. De la Conquista a 1840, Santiago, Taurus, 2005, 161-197. [ Links ] 61 The Sociology of Georg Simmel, translated, edited, and with an introduction by Kurt H. Wolff, The Free Press of Glencoe, Glencoe, 1950, 321. [ Links ] 64 We tackle this in the paper "Cuando las afrentas se lavaban con sangre: honor y violencia popular en Chile colonial", III Seminario historiadores de Chile: Mario Góngora. [ Links ] 65 A.N.R.A., Vol. 2537, Pza 3, Fj. 164vta. About social significances of bodily punishment, see Alejandra Araya, "El castigo físico: el cuerpo como representación de la persona, un capítulo en la historia de la occidentalización de América, siglos XVI-XVIII", Historia, Nº 39, Vol. 2, Santiago, 2006, 349-367. [ Links ] From the legal perspectiva, see the detailed work of Patricia Zambrana Moral, "Rasgos generales de la evolución histórica de la tipología de las penas corporales", Revista de Estudios Histórico-Jurídicos, Escuela de Derecho, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, XXVII, 2005, 197-229. [ Links ] For Mexico, see Gabriel Haslip-Viera, Crime and punishment in late colonial Mexico City, 1692-1810, Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1999, 101-131. [ Links ] 70 Julian Pitt-Rivers, Antropología del honor, op. cit.; J. G. Peristiany (ed.), El concepto de honor, op. cit.; J. K. Campbell, Honnour, Family and Patronage; [ Links ] Pierre Bourdieu, La dominación masculina; [ Links ] Robert Nye A., Masculinity and male codes of honor in modern France, New York, Oxford University Press, 1993; [ Links ] Elizabeth A. Foyster, Manhood in Early Modern England. [ Links ] 71 This is one of the aspects we are studying for our doctoral thesis and have already referred to it in the already mentioned paper "Cuando las afrentas se lavaban con sangre". About the acceptance in the community of men and women living together, without the sacrament of marriage, see the works by Eduardo Cavieres and René Salinas, particularly Amor, sexo y matrimonio en Chile tradicional, Valparaíso, Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 1991; [ Links ] René Salinas, "La transgresión delictiva de la moral matrimonial y sexual y su represión en Chile tradicional. 1700-1870", Contribuciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Santiago, N° 114, noviembre 1996, 1-23. [ Links ] 75 "It is evident that the duel, as understood in classic Europe, places us in the confluence of concepts of different origin: blood vengeance and punishment of insult". Jean-Paul Roux, La sangre. Mitos, símbolos y realidades, Barcelona, Península, 1990, 185. [ Links ] See also Mentalites. Histoire des Cultures et des Sociétés, Nº 1: Affaires de Sang, Paris, Imago, 1988. [ Links ] 76 The Sociology of Georg Simmel, 321. [ Links ] 77 V. G. Kiernan, El Duelo en la Historia de Europa. Honor y privilegio de la aristocracia, Madrid, Alianza, 1992, 162. [ Links ] 78 Pierre Bourdieu, La distinción, 195-197. [ Links ] 79 Bibliography about duels is ample. For Europe, only from the historiographic point of view, we can cite: Claude Chauchaudis, La loi du duel: le code du point d'honneur dans l'Espagne des XVI et XVII siècles, Toulousse, Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1997; [ Links ] Robert Nye A., Masculinity and male codes, V. G. Kiernan, El Duelo en la Historia, op. cit. Also, considering only historiography, for America we can mention: Sandra Gayol, "Duelos, honores, leyes y derechos: Argentina, 1887-1923", en Anuario IEHS, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Universidad Nacional del Centro, Tandil-Argentina, Nº 14, 1999, 313-330; [ Links ] 80 It is a perspective we are developing in an investigation about honor in the Chilean 18th century and that we have already presented in the mentioned paper "Cuando las afrentas se lavaban con sangre". For the anthropological perspective, see Pierre Bonte and Michael Izard (dir.), Diccionario de etnología y antropología, Madrid, Akal, 1996, 732-735; [ Links ] Joseph Ginat, Blood disputes among Bedouin and rural Arabs of Israel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987; [ Links ] Raymond Verdier (dir), La vengeance. Etudes d'ethnologie, d'histoire et de philosophie, Paris, Editions Cujas, 4 vols., 1980-1984. [ Links ] From the historiography point of view, see Pieter Spierenburg (ed.), Men and Violence. Gender, Honor and Rituals in Modern Europe and America, Ohio, Ohio State University Press, 1998. [ Links ] We specially stress the suggesting work of Thomas W. Gallant, "Honor, Masculinity, and Ritual Knife Fighting in Nineteenth-Century Greece", The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, Nº 2, 2000, 359-382. [ Links ] |
